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Beta-3 receptors are highly expressed in adipose tissue but have limited expression in most other tissues in adult humans

Further studies aim to clarify its effectiveness as a therapeutic agent

What Works (Animal Studies) A 2025 systematic review presented at the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons analyzed 39 studies from 1993-2024

In the randomized placebo-controlled HOME trial of 390 adults with type 2 diabetes (de Jager and colleagues, Long term treatment with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes and risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency, BMJ, 2010), metformin lowered serum B12 by a mean of 19 percent over 4.3 years